Research articleViewing tobacco use in movies: Does it shape attitudes that mediate adolescent smoking?1
Introduction
Although extensive research has demonstrated the importance of some social factors—peer smoking, family smoking, school smoking rates, and print advertising—on adolescent smoking, little attention has been given to movie influences. Movies are a powerful socializing force for contemporary adolescents, shaping views of what is “cool,” attractive, and grown-up—all things that adolescents try to be. Adolescents may perceive relationships between these desired characteristics and behaviors (e.g., tobacco use) that might help establish this identity. To the extent that smoking portrayals are consistent with adolescents’ actual or ideal self-images or prototypes of the ideal group member, adolescents will be motivated to smoke to align self-perceptions with personal ideals.1, 2, 3, 4
In 1998, the Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a survey of the media habits of a nationally representative sample of American children.5 The survey found that adolescents aged 8 to 13 years are exposed to an average of two to three movies per week, with some seeing as many as five. This amounts to an average of 100 to 150 movies per year. At the same time, greater restrictions on public tobacco use have limited adolescents’ exposure to this social influence, making movies a key way that adolescents learn about the stylistic elements and social context of tobacco use. Furthermore, smoking in movies is modeled by popular stars and often associated with other adult behaviors, so the exposure is likely to be more salient to adolescents than smoking in the community.
Adolescent smoking is a multiply determined behavior influenced by cultural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal factors.6 Our theoretical model integrates what is known about various risk factors that predict smoking initiation, including individual factors (e.g., temperament, socioeconomic status, and gender), peer factors (e.g., influence and self-selection), parental involvement (e.g., control and support), and media influence. Our model, which has as its basis social cognitive theory,7 dictates that there are multiple reciprocal interactions among these risk factors that lead to attitudinal susceptibility to smoking (Figure 1). The putative social cognitive mechanisms that render adolescents susceptible include normative beliefs about smoking, self-identification processes, and learned expectations. These processes are implicit and shaped by the social context, such as exposure to smoking behavior in movies.
In a recent cross-sectional study, we demonstrated that exposure to tobacco use in movies is associated with adolescent smoking behavior.8 Although the finding is suggestive, the study does not show that exposure to movie tobacco use precedes smoking initiation. Another plausible explanation is that adolescents who begin smoking for other reasons seek out movies that depict risk-taking behaviors in order to further consolidate their identities as smokers. However, this cross-sectional study also included many who had never tried a cigarette. Our theoretical model postulates that movie portrayals shape mediating attitudes that precede smoking initiation. Therefore, we predict that higher exposure to tobacco use among never-smokers will be associated with more favorable attitudes toward taking up smoking.
Section snippets
Overview
We recruited a representative adolescent sample from New Hampshire and Vermont middle schools and conducted a cross-sectional survey to determine smoking status and exposure to tobacco use in movies.
Sample recruitment
We identified all schools in New Hampshire and Vermont with at least 150 students (N=154). We then randomly selected 30 schools (15 from each state) and approached them for participation in the study. Fifty percent of the schools agreed to participate within 30 days of the offer (seven from New
Characteristics of the sample
The 3766 adolescents ranged in age from 9 to 15 years; fifth graders were under-represented because some of the junior high schools did not include that grade (Table 1). The students were primarily white and equally distributed by gender, with most reporting that both parents had graduated from high school. Thirty-three percent reported having at least one parent who smoked, 12% had a sibling that smoked, and 27% had friends who smoked.
Attitudes toward smoking
Approximately 20% of the adolescents were susceptible to
Discussion
Our research documents a strong relationship between viewing tobacco use in movies and more positive attitudes toward smoking among adolescent never-smokers. This extends research already published showing a cross-sectional association between exposure to movie depictions of tobacco use and adolescent smoking behavior.8 The previous finding is subject to the interpretation that adolescents begin smoking for other reasons and then seek out the types of movies that depict smoking in order to
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Cancer Institute grant CA-77026. We are grateful to Susan Martin for editorial assistance, and to Dan Nassau and Ezra Hays for coding the movies.
References (28)
- et al.
Psychosocial correlates of adolescent smokeless tobacco use
Addict Behav
(1985) Cognitive susceptibility to smoking and initiation of smoking during childhooda longitudinal study
Prev Med
(1998)- et al.
Preventing alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use among adolescentspeer pressure resistance training versus establishing conservative norms
Prev Med
(1991) - et al.
Antecedents, subjective expected utility, and behaviora panel study of adolescent cigarette smoking
Addict Behav
(1984) - et al.
Positive and negative outcome expectations of smokingimplications for prevention
Prev Med
(1999) - et al.
Effect of cigarette promotions on smoking uptake among adolescents
Prev Med
(2000) - et al.
Psychosocial determinants of the onset and escalation of smokingcross-sectional and prospective findings in multiethnic middle school samples
J Adolesc Health
(2000) - et al.
The measurement of substance use among adolescentswhen is the “bogus pipeline” method needed?
Addict Behav
(1987) - et al.
Do movie stars encourage adolescents to start smoking? Evidence from California
Prev Med
(1999) - et al.
Image attributions and smoking intentions among seventh grade students
J Appl Soc Psychol
(1989)
Self-images and cigarette smoking in adolescents
Personality Soc Psychol Bull
Role of the self-image and smoker stereotype in smoking onset during early adolescencea longitudinal study
Health Psychol
Kids & media @ the new millennium
Reviewing theories of adolescent substance useorganizing pieces in the puzzle
Psychol Bull
Cited by (146)
The impact of e-cigarette product place in music videos on susceptibility to use e-cigarettes among young adults: An experimental investigation
2022, Addictive BehaviorsCitation Excerpt :Social cognitive theory suggests that behavior is learned and reinforced by observing or modeling others (Bandura, 2001; Bandura, 2001). Popular music videos that juxtapose social and rewarding experiences with e-cigarette brands can be considered socializing forces for young adults, molding their views of what is normative, attractive, and rewarding (Sargent et al., 2002). The sexual image of e-cigarette use that often appears in music videos can make vaping more salient and lead young adults to associate e-cigarette use with its short-term benefits and related positive outcome expectations (Allem et al., 2019).
Initiation of Traditional Cigarette Smoking after Electronic Cigarette Use Among Tobacco-Naïve US Young Adults
2018, American Journal of MedicineAddicted media: Substances on screen
2018, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and the MediaPredictors of U.S. Adults’ Opinion Toward an R-Rating Policy for Movies With Cigarette Smoking
2024, Health Education and Behavior“Not Just Made for My Pure Entertainment”: Social Justice Movies as Tools for Fueling Consciousness, Conversations, Change
2024, Howard Journal of Communications
- 1
The full text of this article is available via AJPM Online at www.elsevier.com/locate/ajpmonline.