Study | Country | Dependent variable | Price/tax variable | Covariates |
---|---|---|---|---|
Douglas, Hariharan (1994)10 | United States | Onset: Not reported Smoker: Not reported Time origin: Birth | Prices: state-level average cigarette prices (price when 18 years old and change in ln of price between 15-18 years old) Deflator: CPI all-items | Price; household income; education; 1964 Surgeon General's report; age, age squared; sex; marital status; ethnicity. |
Douglas (1998)14 | United States | Onset: reported age of "starting smoking regularly" Smoker: not defined Time origin: 11 years old | Prices: state-level average cigarette prices (average price when 15-19 years old included in probit model; past, current and future prices included in duration model) Deflator: CPI all-items | Probit: price; household income; education; age, age squared; sex; marital status; ethnicity. Duration: price; education; 1964 surgeon's general report; broadcast ban; index of state regulations; sex; marital status; ethnicity. |
DeCicca, Kenkel, Mathios (2000)15 | United States | Same as DeCicca, Kenkel, Mathios (2002) | Prices: average cigarette price per package of 20 cigarettes weighted by market share, exclusive of generic brands, inclusive of taxes (measured in November of the survey year with adjustments for timing of survey). Prices are calculated at state-level. Deflator: CPI all-items | Same as DeCicca, Kenkel, Mathios (2002) |
Forster, Jones (2001; 2003)16 23 | Britain | Onset: How old were you when you started to smoke cigarettes? Smoker: Smoked at least one cigarette per day for a minimum of 6 months Time origin: Birth (and 4 years old) | Taxes: total receipts from tobacco duty as a share of the total sales volume Deflator: All-item price index | Probit: social class; education; parental smoking; ethnicity; Duration: price; social class; education; parental smoking; ethnicity; time trend (quartic polynomial) |
Hammar, Martinsson (2001)17 | Sweden | Onset: How old were you when you started to smoke every day? Smoker: smoked every day Time origin: 9 years old | Prices: average cigarette prices Deflator: CPI all-items | Price; social class; parental smoking; tobacco control policy indicators; sex; time trend (trend, trend2, trend3) |
Tauras, O'Malley, Johnston (2001)18 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given individual did not smoke in period t-1 Smoker: 1. Consumed any cigarettes in past 30 days; 2. Consumed at least 5 cigarettes in past 30 days; 3. Consumed at least 10 cigarettes in past 30 days. Only individuals who have never smoked are allowed to enter the risk pool. | Prices: weighted average of the first six months using average cigarette price (Tobacco Institute). Prices calculated at state-level. Deflator: CPI all-items at national level. | Price; seven youth access law policy indicators (at state-level); sex; age; race; living arrangement; parental education; mother's work status; religious participation; marital status; number of children; hours worked; education; income; number of observations per individual in the full sample; year; region. |
DeCicca, Kenkel, Mathios (2002)19 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given individual did not smoke in period t-1 Smoker: How many cigarettes do you currently smoke in a day? 0, 1–5, 6–10, 11–40, and 40 or more. In 1990 and 1992 <1 cigarette a day was a possible response. This category was combined with the 1–5 category. Smoker defined as > = 1 cigarette per day. | Taxes: state excise taxes Deflator: CPI all-items | Tax; sex; ethnicity; dropout; test score; region; suburb; rural; religion; age; family income; mother's education; father's education; mother's occupation; father's occupation; family size; number of siblings; family composition; indices of restrictions on public smoking and youth smoking; index of smokers' right laws; state FE |
Onset: starting to smoke between 8th and 10th grade; and 8th and 12th grade Smoker: as above | Taxes: state excise taxes (contemporaneous) Deflator: n/a | As above | ||
Onset: starting to smoke between 8th and 12th grade Smoker: as above | Taxes: state excise taxes (change from 1988 to 1992; levels in 1988) Deflator: n/a | As above | ||
Onset: starting to smoke between 8th and 12th grade Smoker: >10 cigarette per day. Users of 1-10 cigarettes a day are treated as smokers | As above | As above | ||
Glied (2002)20 | United States | Onset: model 1. Did not smoke by age 16 but were smoking in 1984; model 2. Did not smoke in 1984 (aged 27-35) but were smoking in 1992; model 3. Did not smoke in 1984 (aged 29-37) but were smoking in 1994. Smoker: Smoked at least 1 cigarette per day in last 30 days (1984 survey); Smoked at least 100 cigarettes in lifetime and now smoke 1 or more cigarettes per day (1992 and 1994 surveys) | Taxes: state excise taxes at age 14 Deflator: not reported | Tax; race, sex, age, marital status in year of interview, grade of school completed by year of interview, AFQT score, and whether respondent lived in an SMSA in year of interview. |
López Nicolás (2002)21 | Spain | Onset: What age were you when you started smoking? Smoker: not defined Time origin: Birth | Prices: average price of black cigarettes and blond cigarettes and weighted average black/blond Deflator: CPI all-items | Probit: education; age (born pre-1967; 1967-1976; 1977+) Duration: price; education; advertising ban; time trends |
Cawley, Markowitz, Tauras (2004)24 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given that the youth had not smoked in period t-1 Smoker: 1. transition from non-smoker to smoking any positive quantity of cigarettes; 2. transition from non-smoker to a frequent smoker, as measured by having smoked at least 15 days of the past 30 days. Light smokers (those smoking <15 days but more than 0) treated as missing. | Prices: weighted average of a pack of 20 cigarettes based on the prices of single packs, cartons, and vending machine sales where the weights are the national proportions of each type of sale. Prices are calculated at state-level and are inclusive of state level sales taxes. Deflator: not reported | Price; BMI (>85th percentile); attempted to lose weight; self-perceived under/over weight; tobacco state regulations (clean indoor air index, purchase/use/possession index; producing states); age; race; sex; education level; marital status; youth income; household size; family structure; religion; work status; depressed; obese mother; behavior problems. |
Grignon, Pierrard (2004)25 | France | Onset: For how many years have you been a smoker? For how many years had you smoked; For how many years did you quit; Smoker: not reported Time origin: birth | Prices: index of cigarette prices (price when 15 years old and price when 18 years old) Deflator: CPI all-items | Price; current income; education; sex; nationality; |
Kidd, Hopkins (2004)26 | Australia | Onset: age commenced regular smoking Smoker: one or more cigarettes per day on average Time origin: 10 years old | Prices: index of tobacco and cigarettes, by capital city (8 cities) Deflator: | Probit: education; Australian born; sex. Duration: price; education; Australian born; sex; time trend (quartic polynomial) |
Laxminarayan, Deolalikar (2004)27 | Vietnam | Onset: Individuals reporting being non-smokers in 1993: 1. Remain non-smoker; 2. Initiate cigarette smoking; 3. Initiate water pipe smoking. Smoker: not defined | Price: cigarette and waterpipe prices at commune-level. Deflator: not reported | Price: cigarette and waterpipe tobacco; in levels (1993) and changes between 1993 and 1998); total household expenditures (in levels (1993) and changes between 1993 and 1998); age, age squared; education. |
Arzhenovsky (2006)28 | Russia | Onset: When did you start smoking? How old were you then? Do you smoke now [unclear which question was used] Smoker: not defined Time origin: not reported | Prices: Self-reported, at the household-level (estimated from expenditures and quantity smoked; calculated for 'cheap' and 'expensive' brands at PSU -level); City-based prices of locally manufactured pack (Goskomstat) Deflator: CPI all-items, region-based | Price; sex; marital status; urban/rural; household size; self-reported health status; age; survey dummies; |
Cawley, Markowitz, Tauras (2006)29 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given individual did not smoke in period t-1 Smoker: whether respondent has ever smoked a cigarette | Prices: average cigarette price (Tobacco Institute). Prices calculated at state-level. Deflator: CPI all-items at national level. | Price; regulation indices (youth use; smoke-free air; youth access); obesity indicators (BMI; weight; underweight, risk of overweight, overweight) ln of family income; grade, percentile score on PIAT reading test; year; mother's highest grade completed; mother's age; race/ethnicity; age; enrolled in school; mother's characteristics (married with her spouse present; employed; has smoked 100 cigarettes in lifetime; currently smokes) |
Kim, Clark (2006)30 | United States | Onset: respondents who reported smoking at wave 3 who were never smokers at wave 1 Smoker: smoked at least an entire cigarette at least once but not every day in the past 30 days Never smoker: never puffed a cigarette | Prices: State tax 1995 in $ Deflator: n/a | Tax; ethnicity; age; family income; parent's education; parent structure; family bonding; ease of cigarette availability at home; peer smoking; school smoking rates; state level tobacco control policies. |
Zhang, Cohen, Ferrence, Rehm (2006)31 | Canada | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given individual did not smoke in period t-1 Smoker: daily or occasional (definition not provided) | Prices: quarterly cigarette prices at time t minus prices at time t-1 in 26 major cities. Individuals not living in cities for which price data are available are assigned province average. Deflator: CPI all-items at province level | Price; age; sex; education; income; marital status; tobacco control indicators (smoke-free bylaws for restaurants, bylaw enforcement, bylaw signage, and tobacco control expenditures); province FE |
Coppejans, Gilleskie, Sieg, Strumpf (2007)32 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given individual did not smoke in period t-1 Smoker: How many cigarettes do you currently smoke in a day? 0, 1–5, 6–10, 11–40, and 40 or more. In 1990 and 1992 <1 cigarette a day was a possible response. Smoker defined as >0 cigarette per day. Time origin: not reported | Prices: Metropolitan areas monthly price indices for tobacco and smoking products collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Deflator: not reported | Price; price volatility; sex; race; age; standardized test scores; religion; dropout indicator; sibling dropout indicator; family composition; family SES; parent's education; income; employment status; guardian's age; school characteristics. |
Grignon (2007)33 | France | Onset: For how many years have you been a smoker; for how many years were you a smoker; which year did you quit Smoker: not defined Time origin: Birth | Prices: index of tobacco prices Deflator: CPI all-items | Price; sex; education; SES |
Madden (2007)22 | Ireland | Onset: Current smokers: for approximately how many years have you smoked; Ex-smokers: for approximately how many years have you smoked, and what year did you stop Smoker: Not defined Time origin: 10 years old | Taxes: total tax component of retail price. Deflator: personal consumption deflator | Probit: education; cohort; health knowledge; married Duration: tax, education; cohort; health knowledge; time trend (third-order polynomial) |
DeCicca, Kenkel, Mathios, Shin, Lim (2008)34 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke in period t, given that the youth had not smoked regularly in period t-1 (smoked regularly not defined) Smoker: not reported | Prices: average cigarette price per package of 20 cigarettes weighted by market share, exclusive of generic brands, inclusive of taxes (measured in November of the survey year). Prices are calculated at state-level. Deflator: CPI all-items | Price; state FE; other covariates not reported |
DeCicca, Kenkel, Mathios (2008)37 | United States | Onset: starting to smoke between 1992 and 2000, given individual did not smoke in 1992 Smoker: How many cigarettes do you currently smoke in a day? 0, <1, 1–5, 6–10, 11–40, and 40 or more. Smoker: >1 cigarette per day (<1 included in non-smokers) | Taxes: state excise taxes in 2000 Deflator: n/a | Tax; sex; ethnicity; age; test score; region. |
Malhotra, Boudarbat (2009)36 | Canada | Onset: At what age did you smoke your first cigarette? Smoker: current smoker: currently smokes cigarettes daily or occasionally; former smoker: has smoked at least 100 cigarettes in his life, but currently does not smoke. Time origin: birth | Prices: index of cigarette prices (price when 15 years old) Deflator: CPI all-items | Probit/duration: price; age; marital status; household size; Census Metropolitan Area; speaks other than French/English at home; province FE |
Kenkel, Lillard, Liu (2009)35 | China | Onset: Not reported Smoker: Not reported Time origin: Birth | Prices: average retail price of cigarettes from 1952 to 1992 and a tobacco price index for 1993–2003. Deflator: Not reported | Price; education; age; wealth; occupation; urban-rural status, household size, province FE, time trend |
Liu (2010)38 | United States | Onset: Started to smoke in last 12 months based on current smoking status and question: Around this time 12 months ago, were you smoking cigarettes every day, some days or not at all? Smoker: Do you now smoke cigarettes every day, some days or not at all? | Prices: state-level average cigarette prices Deflator: Urban CPI all-items | Price; household income; household size; age; age squared; sex; race/ethnicity; education; marital status; survey month indicators; year FE; anti-smoking sentiment index; state FE |
Étilé, Jones (2010)40 | France | Onset: How old were you when you started to smoke daily; for how many years have you smoked; how long ago did you quit (in months or years); for how many years have you smoked? Smoker: smokes or used to smoke at least one cigarette a day Time origin: 10 years old | Prices: index of tobacco prices Deflator: not reported | Price; education, household income, region, urban/rural, membership of upper social class, loi Veil |
Nonnemaker, Farelly (2011)39 | United States | Onset: If smoker in 1997: how old were you when you smoked your first cigarette. If never smoker in 1997: starting to smoke in period t, given that the youth had not smoked in period t-1. Respondents with missing responses (n = 819), were assumed to have initiated at the midpoint of the period of missing data if the respondent entered the period of missing data as never smoking but reported smoking in the first period after the missing data. Smoker: not reported | Prices: state-level average cigarette prices Taxes: state-level cigarette taxes (including federal, state, and New York city and Cook County, Illinois local taxes) Deflator: not reported | Price or tax; age; state-level smoking prevalence in 1997; household size; parents' education in 1997; living with both biological parents in 1997; Master Settlement Agreement; perceived smoking prevalence in 1997; region FE. |
BMI, body mass index; CPI, consumer price index; FE, fixed effects; n/a, not applicable; SES, socioeconomic status.