National |
Smoke-free laws9 | Reducing secondhand smoke exposure inside waterpipe-serving premises |
Tobacco content regulation10 | Limiting the number of potentially harmful chemicals manufactured in waterpipe tobacco |
Environmental |
Presence of adequate ventilation in waterpipe-serving premises11 | Reducing secondhand smoke exposure inside waterpipe-serving premises |
Low number of smokers in waterpipe-serving premises12 | Reducing secondhand smoke exposure inside waterpipe-serving premises |
High frequency of shared waterpipe use13 | Reducing the number of puffs per session |
Individual1 14 |
Short waterpipe session duration | Reducing the number of puffs per session |
Short mean puff duration | Reducing the volume of smoke inhaled per puff |
Short interpuff interval | Reducing the number of puffs per session |
Waterpipe apparatus |
Smaller apparatus head1 | Reducing the volume of tobacco that can be placed in the head of the apparatus |
Flavoured waterpipe tobacco15 | Being less concentrated in toxicants than unflavoured waterpipe tobacco |
Number and type of charcoal briquettes16 | Charcoal briquettes being less concentrated in toxicants than quick-lighting charcoal discs or bamboo/coconut-based charcoals. Less charcoal pieces used results in less toxicant exposure. |
Fewer and smaller holes in aluminium foil1 | Reducing the volume of charcoal smoke that passes through the apparatus |
Larger apparatus1 | Increasing the amount of smoke deposition throughout the apparatus before it reaches the user |
Large volume of water used1 | Reducing the level of toxicant exposure absorbed by the user |
Leather hose material17 | Being more porous and therefore reducing the volume of smoke that reaches the user compared to plastic hoses |