A critical review of the reasons for smoking scale

doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(10)80025-2

Journal of Substance Abuse

Volume 3, Issue 4, 1991, Pages 441-455

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-3289(10)80025-2 Get rights and content

The present article reviews studies bearing on the psychometric characteristics and clinical utility of the Reasons for Smoking Scale (RFS). It is concluded that the instrument possesses adequate psychometric properties such as a stable factor structure, internal consistency, and temporal stability. However, the supportive results of validity studies are weak and inconsistent. Moreover, the instrument appears to possess little clinical utility. Consequently, there exists little empirical evidence to justify its widespread use in clinical practice.

References (28)

V.J. Adesso et al.
A behavioral test of a smoking typology
Addictive Behaviors
(1978)
R. Bosse et al.
Age and addiction to smoking
Addictive Behaviors
(1980)
J. Flaxman
Affect-management and habit mechanisms in the modification of smoking behavior
Addictive Behaviors
(1979)
D.G. Gilbert
Introversion and self-reported reason for and times of urge for smoking
Addictive Behaviors
(1980)
R. Joffe et al.
A validity test of the reasons for smoking scale
Addictive Behaviors
(1981)
K.J. Mothersill et al.
Subject characteristics and long term postprogram smoking cessation
Addictive Behaviors
(1988)
K.A. O'Connell et al.
Negative affect smoking and smoking relapse
Journal of Substance Abuse
(1988)
S. Shiffman et al.
Self-reported and self-monitored smoking patterns
Addictive Behaviors
(1988)
J.C. Tate et al.
Assessment of the validity of the reasons for smoking scale
Addictive Behaviors
(1990)
R.W. Coan
Personality variables associated with cigarette smoking
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(1973)

P.O. Costa et al.

Smoking motive factors: A review and replication

International Journal of the Addictions

(1980)

D. Horn et al.

Behavior and attitudes questionnaire

(1966)

F.F. Ikard et al.

A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect

International Journal of the Addictions

(1969)

F.F. Ikard et al.

The experience of affect as a determinant of smoking behavior: A series of validity studies

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

(1973)

Cited by (31)

Treatment attrition: Associations with negative affect smoking motives and barriers to quitting among treatment-seeking smokers
2016, Addictive Behaviors
Citation Excerpt :
Smoking motives refer to one's specific reasons for smoking (Ikard, Green, & Horn, 1969). Extensive research has been devoted to understanding and developing theoretical frameworks for smoking motives and their relation to smoking behavior (Ikard et al., 1969; Piper et al., 2004; Tate, Schmitz, & Stanton, 1991). Although there are distinct models of smoking motivation, one consistent observation is that motivation to smoke to reduce/manage negative affect is associated with poor smoking-related outcomes, such as higher rates of nicotine dependence and lower quit rates (Baker, Brandon, & Chassin, 2004; Copeland, Brandon, & Quinn, 1995; Farris, Zvolensky, Beckham, Vujanovic & Schmidt, 2014; Fidler & West, 2009; Kassel et al., 2003).
Pre-treatment attrition and perceived barriers for quitting are clinically important processes involved in early phases of quitting smoking. However, less is known about the constructs that may contribute to these processes such as negative affect reduction smoking motives.
The current study sought to evaluate the relation between negative affect reduction smoking motives and pre-treatment attrition and perceived barriers for quitting in a sample of 425 treatment-seeking smokers (48.5% female; M_age = 37.69 years; SD = 13.61) enrolled in a smoking cessation study examining the efficacy of a transdiagnostic panic-smoking cessation treatment relative to a standard smoking cessation treatment.
Results indicated that greater negative affect reduction smoking motives was associated with an increased likelihood of treatment initiation (odds ratio = 1.49, CI: 1.09, 2.04). Additionally, negative affect reduction smoking motives was associated with greater perceived barriers for cessation among pre-treatment drop-outs and treatment initiators.
This initial investigation provides evidence for the possible clinical utility in addressing negative affect reduction smoking motives during early stages of quitting. Additionally, such findings could potentially inform the development of personalized, early stages of quitting interventions for smoking cessation.
A further investigation of the relations of anxiety sensitivity to smoking motives
2008, Addictive Behaviors
Citation Excerpt :
The original scales, as proposed by Ikard et al. (1969), are: negative affect reduction (6 items), addiction (5 items), habit (4 items), pleasurable relaxation (2 items), stimulation (3 items), and sensorimotor manipulation (3 items). Previous investigations of the RFS have indicated moderate test–retest reliability (Tate, Schmitz, & Stanton, 1991) and predictive validity when participants were asked to report their smoking motives using daily diaries (Tate & Stanton, 1990). The ASI (Peterson & Reiss, 1992) is a 16-item measure that assesses fear of arousal sensations based on beliefs that such sensations may lead to harmful physical, psychological, or social consequences.
Prior research has shown that anxiety sensitivity (AS) is associated with smoking to reduce negative affect (e.g., [Comeau, N., Stewart, S.H., & Loba, P., (2001). The relations of trait anxiety, anxiety sensitivity and sensation seeking to adolescents' motivations for alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use. Addictive Behaviors, 26, 803–825.]). However, given limitations in the measurement of smoking motives in previous AS studies, it has yet to be definitively established that AS is specifically related to negative reinforcement smoking motives. Moreover, the overall AS construct is comprised of three lower-order components: physical, psychological, and social concerns (e.g., [Stewart, S.H., Taylor, S., & Baker, J.M., (1997). Gender differences in dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 179–200.]). Previous investigations generally have not examined the relative contributions of each of these three AS components to smoking for negative reinforcement motives. The present study attempted to address each of these gaps in the literature. A sample of 119 smokers attending a tobacco intervention program (see [Mullane, J.C., Stewart, S.H., Rhyno, E., Steeves, D., Watt, M., & Eisner, A., (2008). Anxiety sensitivity and difficulties with smoking cessation. In A.M. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in Psychological Research (vol. 54A, pp. 141–155). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.]) completed the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; [Peterson, R.A., & Reiss, S., (1992). The Anxiety Sensitivity Index manual (2nd ed.). Worthington, OH: International Diagnostic Services.]) and the Reasons For Smoking scale (RFS; [Ikard, F.F., Green, D.E., & Horn, D., (1969). A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect. International Journal of the Addictions, 4, 649–659.]) at pre-treatment. In a principal components analysis (PCA) of the RFS items, stringent parallel analysis supported a two-factor solution (negative and positive reinforcement smoking motives) as opposed to the intended six factors ([Ikard, F.F., Green, D.E., & Horn, D., (1969). A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect. International Journal of the Addictions, 4, 649–659.]). ASI total scores were significantly positively correlated with both RFS factors in bivariate correlational analyses. In partial correlations, the relation between the ASI and the RFS negative reinforcement factor remained significant when controlling for RFS positive reinforcement smoking motives, but the correlation of ASI with RFS positive reinforcement motives was not significant after controlling for RFS negative reinforcement motives. At the level of AS components, AS psychological concerns were related to both negative and positive reinforcement motives, while AS physical concerns were more strongly related to negative reinforcement motives. Implications for designing targeted tobacco interventions for high AS smokers are discussed.
Ethnic similarities and differences in reasons for smoking
2006, Addictive Behaviors
We examined reasons for smoking among Black and White smokers. We hypothesized that Blacks would be more likely than Whites to cite tension reduction and less likely to cite weight control as a reason for smoking. Black (n = 100) and White (n = 100) female smokers completed the Reasons for Smoking Scale and the Smoking Situations Questionnaire. Regardless of treatment status, Blacks and Whites differed in their reasons for smoking [F(6, 191) = 2.24; p < .05]. Blacks, as compared to Whites, less strongly endorsed weight concern as a reason for smoking [F(1, 198) = 6.10; p < .05]. Results failed to reveal differences in tension reduction, stimulation, handling, relaxation, addiction, and habit as a function of ethnicity. Results suggest that Blacks and Whites exhibit more similarity than difference in their reasons for smoking.
Concordance of different measures of nicotine dependence: Two pilot studies
2004, Addictive Behaviors
Two samples of adult daily smokers completed a structured interview to determine nicotine dependence according to generic (DSM-IV/ICD-10), Fagerström [Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire (FTQ), Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), Heavy Smoking Index (HSI), and time to first cigarette after awakening (TFC)], consumption [e.g., cigarettes/day (CPD)], and self-rating (e.g., “how addicted are you”) measures. One sample was a population-based sample of 43 smokers from the Vermont site of the DSM-IV field trial for substance use disorders. The other sample consisted of 50 smokers evenly distributed across a wide range of CPD to study biochemical markers of smokers. In the first study, DSM/ICD criteria were only slightly correlated with Fagerström (r=.24–.35) and consumption (r=.06–0.33) criteria. Self-rating criteria were correlated moderately with most other criteria (r=.24–.60). In the second study, generic, Fagerström, and self-rating criteria increased with increasing CPD up to 30 CPD but not thereafter. One interpretation of these results is that generic, Fagerström, consumption, and self-rating criteria each tap different aspects of nicotine dependence.
Influence of depression and gender on smoking expectancies and temptations in alcoholics in early recovery
2001, Journal of Substance Abuse
Purpose: Rates of smoking are much higher among persons with alcohol problems and a history of depressive illness than persons without those disorders. Drug use in general may be motivated by outcome expectancies such as negative affective reduction and relaxation. Persons with a history of depression may smoke as a means of mood management. The role of outcome expectancies and major depression in maintaining smoking behavior in a high-risk group of smokers, such as recovering alcoholics, has not been thoroughly examined. Methods: Using a cross-sectional design, 161 abstinent alcohol-dependent men and women who smoked were administered the Inventory to Diagnose Depression (IDD), a self-report instrument for assessing current and lifetime depression according to DSM-IV criteria, and measures of alcohol dependence, nicotine dependence, smoking motives, and situation-defined temptations to smoke. Results: As expected, smoking motives and temptations were moderated by history of depression. Alcoholics with a history of depression were more likely to smoke with the expectancy of negative affect reduction than those with no prior major depression. Using multiple regression, negative affective reduction, addiction, and severity of past depression were the strongest predictors of current temptations to smoke. Implications: These results suggest that individuals with a combined history of alcoholism and major depression are at a high risk to use smoking as a means of mood enhancement.
Tobacco Use Moderates the Association Between Major Depression and Obesity
2010, Health Psychology

View all citing articles on Scopus

: Preparation of this manuscript was partially supported by National Institute on Drug Abuse grant #DA 06143-01.

View full text

A critical review of the reasons for smoking scale

Addictive Behaviors

Addictive Behaviors

Addictive Behaviors

Addictive Behaviors

Addictive Behaviors

Addictive Behaviors

Journal of Substance Abuse

Addictive Behaviors

Addictive Behaviors

Personality variables associated with cigarette smoking

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Smoking motive factors: A review and replication

International Journal of the Addictions

Behavior and attitudes questionnaire

A scale to differentiate between types of smoking as related to the management of affect

International Journal of the Addictions

The experience of affect as a determinant of smoking behavior: A series of validity studies

Journal of Abnormal Psychology