Graphic label | Text label | Label effect | Non-smokers | Smokers | Smoker status effect | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Label | Image themes | M (SD) | M (SD) | F | ηp2 | M (SD) | M (SD) | F | ηp2 |
Cigarettes are Addictive | |||||||||
Hole in Throat | D | 4.50 (2.18) | 2.79 (1.82) | 98.56*** | 0.42 | 4.15 (1.91) | 2.76 (1.85) | 23.81*** | 0.15 |
Cigarette Injection | M, A | 3.54 (2.14) | 2.79 (1.82) | 20.85*** | 0.13 | 3.72 (1.98) | 2.25 (1.59) | 26.24*** | 0.16 |
Red Puppet | M, A | 3.03 (1.69) | 2.79 (1.75) | 3.16 | 0.02 | 3.30 (1.74) | 2.29 (1.48) | 16.17*** | 0.11 |
Woman in Rain | U | 2.74 (1.69) | 2.79 (1.75) | 0.17 | 0.00 | 3.11 (1.75) | 2.23 (1.53) | 11.75*** | 0.08 |
Tobacco Smoke Can Harm Your Children | |||||||||
Smoke Approaching Baby | C | 4.49 (2.12) | 3.79 (2.16) | 20.35*** | 0.13 | 4.65 (1.95) | 3.28 (1.95) | 15.72*** | 0.10 |
Smoke at Baby | C, A, U | 4.35 (2.14) | 3.79 (2.16) | 15.25*** | 0.10 | 4.53 (2.02) | 3.31 (2.02) | 11.77*** | 0.08 |
Girl with Oxygen Mask | C, S, E | 4.33 (2.14) | 3.79 (2.16) | 14.22*** | 0.09 | 4.50 (2.03) | 3.32 (2.03) | 12.24*** | 0.08 |
Smoke at Toddler | C | 4.34 (2.00) | 3.63 (2.00) | 30.57*** | 0.18 | 4.38 (2.05) | 3.36 (2.05) | 10.88*** | 0.07 |
Girl Crying | C, S | 4.17 (2.18) | 3.63 (2.00) | 12.89*** | 0.07 | 4.33 (2.00) | 3.27 (2.00) | 11.95*** | 0.08 |
Child Lettering | A | 3.55 (2.07) | 3.63 (2.00) | 1.60 | 0.01 | 4.03 (2.02) | 2.91 (2.02) | 12.22*** | 0.08 |
Cigarettes Cause Fatal Lung Disease | |||||||||
Healthy/Diseased Lungs | D | 4.71 (1.98) | 3.71 (2.01) | 59.77*** | 0.30 | 4.50 (1.96) | 3.78 (1.96) | 5.46* | 0.04 |
Toe Tag | S | 4.38 (2.17) | 3.63 (1.99) | 43.02** | 0.24 | 4.49 (2.01) | 3.16 (2.01) | 16.56*** | 0.11 |
Lungs Full of Cigarettes | M | 4.05 (2.09) | 3.63 (1.99) | 10.37** | 0.07 | 4.37 (1.99) | 2.91 (1.99) | 22.09*** | 0.14 |
Doctor with X-Ray | E | 3.75 (2.01) | 3.71 (2.01) | 0.21 | 0.00 | 4.12 (1.99) | 3.15 (1.99) | 10.16** | 0.07 |
Cigarettes Cause Cancer | |||||||||
Deathly Ill Woman | S | 5.06 (2.02) | 3.83 (2.14) | 66.01*** | 0.32 | 4.92 (1.93) | 3.63 (1.93) | 16.45*** | 0.11 |
Cancerous Lesion on Lip | D | 4.75 (1.94) | 3.66 (1.96) | 60.55*** | 0.30 | 4.52 (1.95) | 3.73 (1.95) | 7.63** | 0.05 |
Red Cigarette Burning | A | 4.00 (2.05) | 3.66 (1.96) | 9.39** | 0.06 | 4.19 (2.00) | 3.29 (2.00) | 8.56** | 0.06 |
White Cigarette Burning | A | 3.93 (2.15) | 3.83 (2.14) | 0.59 | 0.00 | 4.37 (2.05) | 3.06 (2.05) | 14.07*** | 0.09 |
Cigarettes Cause Stroke and Heart Disease | |||||||||
Oxygen Mask on Man's Face | S,E | 4.44 (2.09) | 3.64 (1.95) | 28.17*** | 0.17 | 4.49 (1.94) | 3.40 (1.97) | 12.77** | 0.08 |
Hand with Oxygen Mask | E | 4.01 (2.07) | 3.64 (2.06) | 7.08** | 0.05 | 4.30 (1.97) | 3.05 (2.00) | 14.82*** | 0.10 |
Man in Pain-Hand on Chest | S | 3.94 (1.97) | 3.64 (1.95) | 7.12** | 0.05 | 4.20 (1.94) | 3.21 (1.87) | 11.44*** | 0.08 |
Red Lightening with Heart | A | 3.72 (2.13) | 3.64 (2.06) | 0.04 | 0.00 | 4.19 (2.03) | 2.85 (1.96) | 15.52*** | 0.10 |
Smoking During Pregnancy Can Harm Your Baby | |||||||||
Baby in Incubator | C,A,S,E | 4.32 (2.26) | 3.81 (2.16) | 14.17*** | 0.09 | 4.47 (2.10) | 3.50 (2.24) | 8.39** | 0.06 |
Pacifier in Ashtray | M | 4.19 (2.20) | 4.01 (2.16) | 0.40 | 0.00 | 4.65 (1.99) | 3.17 (2.17) | 18.10*** | 0.12 |
Smoking Can Kill You | |||||||||
Man with Chest Staples | S,D | 4.41 (1.99) | 3.72 (2.10) | 26.41*** | 0.16 | 4.61 (2.04) | 3.16 (1.97) | 18.52*** | 0.12 |
Red Coffin with Body | A | 4.07 (2.27) | 3.72 (2.10) | 5.25* | 0.04 | 4.47 (2.11) | 2.92 (1.97) | 20.73*** | 0.13 |
Man in Casket | S | 3.95 (2.19) | 3.61 (2.03) | 6.62* | 0.05 | 4.30 (2.09) | 3.08 (1.98) | 14.68*** | 0.10 |
Cigarettes=RIP | A | 3.57 (2.07) | 3.61 (2.03) | 0.73 | 0.00 | 4.05 (2.04) | 2.93 (1.92) | 11.71*** | 0.08 |
Tobacco Smoke Causes Fatal Lung Disease in Non-smokers | |||||||||
Graveyard | M | 4.32 (2.17) | 3.82 (2.18) | 13.63*** | 0.09 | 4.78 (1.96) | 2.91 (2.02) | 32.43*** | 0.19 |
Man Smoke at Woman | U | 4.26 (2.18) | 3.82 (2.18) | 11.16*** | 0.07 | 4.69 (1.99) | 2.93 (2.06) | 27.89*** | 0.17 |
Woman Crying | S | 4.11 (2.09) | 3.82 (2.18) | 5.03* | 0.03 | 4.66 (1.94) | 2.82 (1.98) | 31.19*** | 0.18 |
Woman Smoke at Man | U | 3.96 (2.10) | 3.85 (2.04) | 0.41 | 0.00 | 4.60 (1.88) | 2.92 (1.93) | 33.67*** | 0.20 |
Man Hands Up And Smoke | U | 3.94 (2.20) | 3.85 (2.04) | 0.22 | 0.00 | 4.62 (1.94) | 2.76 (1.86) | 39.55*** | 0.22 |
Quitting Now Greatly Reduces Serious Risk to Your Health | |||||||||
Cigarettes in Toilet Bowl | M | 2.56 (1.76) | 2.71 (1.76) | 2.75 | 0.02 | 3.06 (1.80) | 2.00 (1.53) | 13.58*** | 0.09 |
Man in ‘I Quit’ T-Shirt | M | 2.17 (1.50) | 2.56 (1.74) | 15.19*** | 0.10 | 2.51 (1.70) | 2.15 (1.48) | 2.04 | 0.01 |
Woman Blowing Bubble | M | 1.97 (1.34) | 2.56 (1.74) | 25.07*** | 0.15 | 2.36 (1.56) | 2.12 (1.51) | 1.15 | 0.01 |
Fear-related reactions scores ranged from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). Image themes: A, art-graphics; C, child/baby; D, diseased body part; E, medical equipment; M, metaphor; S, suffering or dead person; U, unpleasant smoking experience. ηp2=proportion of variance explained. The labels selected by the Food and Drug Administration in June 2011 appear in bold.
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.