Instrumental variable probit estimates for prevalence of cigarette smoking (dependent variable 1 if cigarette smoker, 0 if non-smoker)
| Demographic | Socioeconomic status group | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) All | (2) Low | (3) Medium | (4) High | |
| Predicted price of cigarette/pack (2009 Taka) | −0.0217*** (−4.83) | −0.0384** (−3.24) | −0.0252** (−3.15) | −0.0104 (−1.29) |
| Monthly household income (2009 Taka) | 0.0000192*** (4.14) | 0.0000252** (2.76) | 0.0000165 (1.85) | 0.0000116 (1.60) |
| Female | −1.680*** (−21.63) | −1.488*** (−12.32) | −1.783*** (−11.65) | −1.887***(−12.57) |
| Age | −0.00823*** (−5.61) | −0.00760*** (−3.41) | −0.00811** (−2.96) | −0.00947** (−3.19) |
| Married | 0.222*** (4.16) | 0.235** (2.72) | 0.388*** (4.00) | 0.111 (1.10) |
| Household size | 0.0474*** (3.38) | 0.0340 (1.46) | 0.0516 (1.93) | 0.0554* (2.19) |
| Education | ||||
| Primary (1–5 years) | 0.187*** (3.71) | 0.269*** (3.83) | 0.158 (1.74) | −0.220 (−1.50) |
| Secondary (6–8 years) | 0.236*** (3.89) | 0.253** (2.85) | 0.283* (2.51) | −0.123 (−0.80) |
| SSC (9–10 years) | 0.142 (1.94) | 0.231 (1.82) | 0.280* (2.13) | −0.365* (−2.28) |
| Higher Secondary Certificate (11–12 years) | 0.372*** (3.81) | 0.422 (1.73) | 0.727*** (3.66) | −0.209 (−1.22) |
| Bachelor's (14–16 years) | 0.538*** (4.43) | 1.865*** (5.78) | 0.848** (2.98) | −0.0831 (−0.46) |
| Master's (15–17 years) | 0.701*** (3.54) | 0.0194 (0.03) | – | 0.108 (0.43) |
| Above master's | 0.128 (0.26) | – | – | −0.784 (−1.63) |
| Occupation | ||||
| Tenant farmer | 0.154 (1.73) | 0.0352 (0.25) | 0.217 (1.38) | 0.458* (2.43) |
| Self-employed in non-farm agriculture | −0.240* (−2.30) | −0.198 (−1.38) | −0.634** (−3.13) | 0.321 (1.02) |
| Self-employed in non-agricultural activity | 0.194* (1.96) | 0.361* (2.18) | 0.0802 (0.49) | 0.253 (1.28) |
| Farm wage labourer | 0.0859 (1.04) | 0.0117 (0.10) | 0.0674 (0.44) | 0.668** (3.24) |
| Non-farm agricultural wage labourer | −0.166 (−0.78) | −0.210 (−0.48) | −0.453 (−1.01) | 0.461 (1.39) |
| Non-agricultural wage labourer | 0.342** (3.15) | 0.371* (2.12) | 0.197 (1.03) | 0.801** (3.28) |
| Professional | −0.625*** (−4.88) | −0.907*** (−3.44) | −0.973** (−3.27) | −0.140 (−0.67) |
| Managerial/administrative/clerking | −0.116 (−1.16) | −0.322 (−1.96) | −0.209 (−1.14) | 0.283 (1.46) |
| Student | −1.036*** (−10.01) | −1.403*** (−7.21) | −1.394*** (−6.55) | −0.538** (−2.77) |
| Unemployed | 0.0671 (0.84) | 0.0120 (0.10) | −0.0517 (−0.37) | 0.445** (2.59) |
| Homemaker | −0.743*** (−6.19) | −0.656*** (−3.54) | −0.843*** (−4.06) | −0.813** (−3.25) |
| Others | 0.215** (2.77) | 0.314** (2.64) | 0.165 (1.20) | 0.314 (1.96) |
| Indoor smoking restriction (1 yes, 0 no) | −0.0912* (−2.41) | −0.0227 (−0.40) | −0.119 (−1.70) | −0.258** (−3.16) |
| Workplace smoking restriction (1 yes, 0 no) | 0.0277 (0.39) | 0.300* (2.13) | −0.0345 (−0.25) | −0.136 (−1.29) |
| Urban area of residence | 0.341*** (6.28) | 0.277** (2.90) | 0.264** (2.82) | 0.356** (3.21) |
| Wave 2 | −0.178*** (−5.11) | −0.266*** (−4.42) | −0.190** (−2.83) | 0.0717 (0.95) |
| Observations | 8507 | 3484 | 2540 | 2477 |
| Wald test of exogeneity | ||||
| χ2 | 45.88 | 19.52 | 11.87 | 32.67 |
| p Value | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Coefficients are marginal effects. For dummy variables, the marginal effect refers to effect of discrete change in the dummy variable from 0 to 1. The z statistics of the coefficients are in parentheses. Omitted categories include male gender, illiterate, owner farmers (occupation), the time effect of wave 1 and rural area of residence. The reduced form estimate of the price equation is reported in online appendix in table A2.
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.